Essential strategies and practice techniques for this IELTS Reading question type. Learn how to manage time and improve accuracy.
Originally published April 2023. Last reviewed 3 July 2026.
A Radioactivity occurs naturally. The main source comes from natural sources in space, rocks, soil, water and even the human body itself. This is called background radiation and levels vary from place to place, though the average dose is fairly constant. The radiation which is of most concern is artificial radiation which results from human activities. Sources of this include the medical use of radioactive materials, fallout, and contamination from nuclear bomb tests. discharges from the nuclear industry, and the storage and dumping of radioactive waste.
B While artificial radiation accounts for a small proportion of the total, its effects can be disproportionate. Some of the radioactive materials discharged by human activity are not found in nature, such as plutonium, while others which are found naturally may be discharged in different physical and chemical forms, allowing them to spread more readily into the environment, or perhaps accumulate in the food-chain.
For all these reasons simple comparisons of background and artificial radioactivity may not reflect the relative hazards. Equally important, it has never been shown that there is such a thing as a safe dose of radiation and so the fact that we are progressively raising global levels should be of as much concern to us as the possibility of another major nuclear disaster like Chernobyl. Every nuclear test, nuclear reactor or shipment of plutonium means an additional and unnecessary health risk.
C In general, the effects of radiation can be divided into those which affect the individuals exposed and those which affect their descendants. Somatic effects are those which appear in the irradiated or exposed individual. These include cancer and leukemia. Hereditary or genetic effects are those which arise in subsequent generations.
Many of the elements which our bodies need are produced by the nuclear industry as radioactive isotopes or variants. Some of these are released into the environment, for example, iodine and carbon, two common elements used by our bodies. Our bodies do not know the difference between an element that is radioactive and one which is not. So, radioactive elements can be absorbed into living tissues, bones or the blood, where they continue to give off radiation. Radioactive strontium behaves like the calcium-an essential ingredient in our bones — in our bodies. Strontium deposits in the bones send radioactivity into the bone marrow, where the blood cells are formed, causing leukemia.
D There are three principal effects which radiation can have on cells: firstly the cell may be killed; secondly the way the cell multiply may be affected, resulting in cancer; and thirdly damage may occur in the cells of the ovaries or testes, leading to the development of a child with an inherited abnormality.
In most cases, cell death only becomes significant when large numbers of cells are killed, and the effects of cell death therefore only become apparent at comparatively high dose levels. If a damaged cell is able to survive a radiation dose, the situation is different. In many cases, the effect of cell damage may never become apparent. A few malfunctioning cells will not significantly affect an organ where the large majority are still behaving normally.
However, if the affected cell is a germ cell within the ovaries or testes, the situation is different. Ionizing radiation can damage DNA, the molecule which acts as the cell’s ‘instruction book’. If that germ cell later forms a child, all of the child’s cells will carry the same defect. The localized chemical alteration of DNA in a single cell may be expressed as an inherited abnormality in one or many future generations.
In the same way that a somatic cell in body tissue is changed in such a way that it or its descendants escape the control processes which normally control cell replication, the group of cells formed may continue to have a selective advantage in growth over surrounding tissue. It may ultimately increase sufficiently in size to form detectable cancer and in some cases cause death by spreading locally or to other parts of the body.
E While there is now broad agreement about the effects of high-level radiation, there is controversy over the long-term effect of low-level doses. This is complicated by the length of time it takes for effects to show up, the fact that the populations being studied (bomb survivors, people exposed to nuclear tests or workers in the nuclear industry ) are small and exact doses are hard to calculate.
All that can be said is that predictions made about the effects of a given dose vary. A growing number of scientists point to evidence that there is a disproportionately high risk from low doses of radiation. Others assume a directly proportionate link between the received dose and the risk of cancer for all levels of dose, while there are some who claim that at low doses there is a disproportionately low level of risk.
Questions 1-4
Reading Passage has 5 sections A-E.
From the list of headings below choose the most suitable heading for sections B to E.
Write the appropriate numbers (i-viii) in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.
Note: There are more headings than sections, so you will not use all of them. You may use any of the headings more than once.
HEADINGS
i. Cells affected by radiation
ii. Effects of low-dose radiation
iii. Effects on cell multiplication
iv. Effects of radiation on cells
v. Sources of radiation
vi. Radiation in the food chain
vii. Dissemination of radiation
viii. Health effects of radiation
Example Section A Answer v
1 Section B
2 Section C
3 Section D
4 Section E
Questions 5-10
Classify the following as linked in the passage to:
BR Background Radiation
AR Artificial Radiation
N Neither
B Both
Write the appropriate letters in boxes 5-10 on your answer sheet.
5 produced by the human body
6 involves only safe amounts of radiation
7 is used for medical purposes
8 includes plutonium
9 produces a constant level of radiation
10 can enter the food chain
Questions 11-16
Complete the summary of Section D of Reading Passage below.
Choose your answers from the box below the summary and write them in boxes 11—16 on your answer sheet.
Note: There are more words/phrases that you will need to fill the gaps. You may use a word or phrase more than once if you wish.
SUMMARY
Radiation can affect an organism by damaging 11……… which may then die or malfunction. If the 12……. affected in this way is small, the effect will not be too drastic and may not be noticeable. Alternatively, the 13……. may grow uncontrollably and form cancers, in which case the organism is likely to die.
If the DNA in a germ cell in the ovaries or testes is affected, and 14…….. originating from that 15….. may display 16…., which can, in turn, be passed on to further offspring.
Comprehensive guide covering essential IELTS preparation strategies and techniques to help you achieve your target band score.
Originally published March 2023. Last reviewed 3 July 2026.
The zero conditional is used to express general truths, scientific facts, or situations where one action consistently leads to another. The structure of a zero conditional sentence involves two simple present verbs: one in the ‘if’ clause (condition) and one in the main clause (result).
If clause (condition)
Main clause (result)
If + simple present
simple present
If this thing happens
that thing happens.
The order of the clauses can be reversed, and the meaning remains the same. In zero conditional sentences, “if” can be replaced with “when” since both convey general truths.
Examples
If you drop a glass, it breaks.
Glass breaks if you drop it.
When you drop a glass, it breaks.
Glass breaks when you drop it.
Functions
The zero conditional has several functions:
Expressing general truths and scientific facts: These statements hold true regardless of specific circumstances.
Examples:
If you heat water to 100°C (212°F), it boils. If plants don’t receive enough sunlight, they can’t photosynthesize. If you combine hydrogen and oxygen, you get water.
Describing consistent outcomes: These sentences express consistent results that occur when
a certain condition is met.
Examples:
If it rains, the ground gets wet. If you oversleep, you might be late for work.
Giving instructions: The zero conditional is often used to provide directions or advice by using the imperative in the main clause.Examples:
If Jane calls, tell her to meet me at the library. Ask Maria if you’re not sure how to complete the task. If you need help, don’t hesitate to reach out. Keep your phone on silent if we’re in a meeting.
Practice Questions
Choose the correct option in each of the following zero conditional sentences.
If you (leave / leaves) food outside, it attracts ants.
Answer: leave Explanation: The correct form is “leave” as we use simple present verbs in both clauses of zero conditional sentences.
Plants (grow / grows) if they receive sufficient sunlight and water.
Answer: grow Explanation: The correct form is “grow” as we use simple present verbs in both clauses of zero conditional sentences.
If you (don’t water / doesn’t water) the plants regularly, they wilt.
Answer: don’t water Explanation: The correct form is “don’t water” as we use simple present verbs in both clauses of zero conditional sentences.
A bicycle (rust / rusts) if it’s left out in the rain.
Answer: rusts Explanation: The correct form is “rusts” as we use simple present verbs in both clauses of zero conditional sentences.
When the wind (blow / blows) strongly, the tree branches sway.
Answer: blows Explanation: The correct form is “blows” as we use simple present verbs in both clauses of zero conditional sentences.
If you (mix / mixes) vinegar and baking soda, it creates a chemical reaction.
Answer: mix Explanation: The correct form is “mix” as we use simple present verbs in both clauses of zero conditional sentences.
The traffic lights (turn / turns) red if there’s an emergency vehicle approaching.
Answer: turn Explanation: The correct form is “turn” as we use simple present verbs in both clauses of zero conditional sentences.
If you (touch / touches) a hot stove, you get burned.
Answer: touch Explanation: The correct form is “touch” as we use simple present verbs in both clauses of zero conditional sentences.
When the air temperature (drop / drops) below 0°C (32°F), water freezes.
Answer: drops Explanation: The correct form is “drops” as we use simple present verbs in both clauses of zero conditional sentences.
If a device (is / are) not charged, it doesn’t work properly.
Answer: is Explanation: The correct form is “is” as we use simple present verbs in both clauses of zero conditional sentences.
Comprehensive guide covering essential IELTS preparation strategies and techniques to help you achieve your target band score.
Originally published March 2023. Last reviewed 3 July 2026.
In this guide, we will explore the past simple tense, its uses, and the necessary information to help you understand and master it. We’ll cover completed actions in the past, past habits, situations that were true in the past, and events in chronological order. After that, we’ll provide 25 practice questions to test your understanding of the past simple tense, with correct answers and explanations at the end.
Completed actions in the past
The past simple tense is used to describe actions or events that happened in the past, with a specific time either mentioned or implied. These actions are completed, and there is no connection to the present.
Examples:
I met Sarah last week. (The meeting happened in the past and is finished.)
They finished the project on time. (The project was completed in the past.)
He visited London last summer. (The visit took place in the past and is over.)
Past habits
The past simple tense is used to talk about past habits or actions that occurred regularly or repeatedly in the past. These habits are no longer true in the present.
Examples:
He exercised every morning before work. (He no longer exercises every morning.)
She taught English at a local school. (She doesn’t teach English there anymore.)
We used to go for a walk every evening. (We don’t go for walks every evening now.)
Situations that were true in the past
The past simple tense is used to describe situations, facts, or states that were true in the past but are no longer true in the present.
Examples:
My great-grandmother spoke four languages. (She is no longer alive.)
She grew up in a small village. (She doesn’t live in that village now.)
Events in chronological order
The past simple tense is used to describe the main events of a story in chronological order, showing a sequence of actions that occurred in the past.
Example:
After I got home, I changed my clothes, and then I started cooking dinner. (The actions happened one after the other in the past.)
Forming the past simple tense
The past simple tense is formed by adding -ed to the base form of regular verbs. For example, “work” becomes “worked” and “dance” becomes “danced.” However, there are many irregular verbs in English that have unique past simple forms, such as “go” (went), “eat” (ate), and “sing” (sang).
Practice Questions:
Last week, they ______ (move) to a new house. a. moved b. were moving c. will move
She ______ (study) French when she was in high school. a. studied b. was studying c. will study
Yesterday, it ______ (rain) heavily in the morning. a. rained b. was raining c. will rain
We ______ (have) dinner together every Sunday in the past. a. had b. were having c. will have
He ______ (write) a letter to his friend two days ago. a. wrote b. was writing c. will write
Correct Answers and Explanations:
Correct answer: a. moved Explanation: The past simple tense is used to describe completed actions in the past. In this case, moving to a new house is a completed action that happened last week.
Correct answer: a. studied Explanation: The past simple tense is used to talk about past habits. Studying French in high school is a past habit that is no longer true in the present.
Correct answer: a. rained Explanation: The past simple tense is used to describe completed actions in the past. The heavy rain in the morning is a completed action that happened yesterday.
Correct answer: a. had Explanation: The past simple tense is used to talk about past habits. Having dinner together every Sunday is a past habit that is no longer true in the present.
Correct answer: a. wrote Explanation: The past simple tense is used to describe completed actions in the past. Writing a letter to a friend is a completed action that happened two days ago.
Comprehensive guide covering essential IELTS preparation strategies and techniques to help you achieve your target band score.
Originally published March 2023. Last reviewed 3 July 2026.
The past continuous tense is an essential part of English grammar, as it allows us to convey actions or situations that were in progress in the past. In this lesson, we will explore the form and uses of the past continuous tense, along with tips for identifying and using this tense correctly.
Forming the Past Continuous Tense
To form the past continuous tense, we need to use the auxiliary verb “to be” in its past form (was/were) followed by the main verb with an -ing ending (present participle).
For example: I was working. They were playing.
Uses of the Past Continuous Tense
a. Actions in progress in the past:
The past continuous tense is used to describe actions that were in progress (not finished) at a specific moment in the past.
For example:
He was reading a book when the doorbell rang. They were watching TV when the power went out.
b. Describing a scene:
We often use the past continuous tense at the beginning of a story or description to set the scene.
For example:
It was snowing, and the streets were deserted. Suddenly, a car appeared out of nowhere.
c. Past simple vs past continuous:
The past simple is used for completed actions in the past, while the past continuous is used for actions in progress (not finished) in the past.
For example:
She finished her homework. (past simple) She was finishing her homework when her friend called. (past continuous)
Time Expressions
Time expressions can be used to indicate a specific moment in the past when the action was in progress. Examples of time expressions include:
at 9 a.m.
at midday
at lunchtime
all morning
all day
etc.
For example:
They were swimming at 7 in the morning.
At midday, they were still working.
Tips for Identifying and Using the Past Continuous Tense
Look for the auxiliary verb “was” or “were” followed by a verb with an -ing ending.
Use the past continuous tense when describing an action in progress in the past, especially when interrupted by another action.
Use the past continuous tense to set the scene in a story or description.
Keep in mind the differences between past simple and past continuous when describing actions in the past.
The past continuous tense is crucial for describing actions in progress or situations that were happening in the past. By understanding its form and uses, as well as recognizing the appropriate time expressions and distinguishing between the past simple and past continuous tenses, you will be better equipped to convey your thoughts and ideas in English accurately. Practice using the past continuous tense in various contexts to improve your mastery of this essential grammar point.
Practice Question for Past Continuous Tense
Choose the correct verb tense for the following sentence:
“She ______ (cook) dinner when her friend called.” a. cooked b. was cooking c. is cooking
Correct answer: b. was cooking Explanation: The past continuous tense is used to describe an action in progress in the past that was interrupted by another action (her friend calling).
“They ______ (travel) through Europe when they met each other.” a. traveled b. were traveling c. will travel
Correct answer: b. were traveling Explanation: The past continuous tense is used to describe actions in progress in the past (traveling through Europe) when another event occurred (meeting each other).
“The birds ______ (sing) beautifully when the rain started.” a. sang b. were singing c. are singing
Correct answer: b. were singing Explanation: The past continuous tense is used to describe an ongoing action in the past (birds singing) that was interrupted by another action (the rain starting).
“While the students ______ (take) the test, the fire alarm went off.” a. took b. were taking c. will take
Correct answer: b. were taking Explanation: The past continuous tense is used to describe an ongoing action in the past (students taking the test) that was interrupted by another action (the fire alarm going off).
“She ______ (write) an email when her computer crashed.” a. wrote b. was writing c. will write
Correct answer: b. was writing Explanation: The past continuous tense is used to describe an ongoing action in the past (writing an email) that was interrupted by another action (the computer crashing).
“He ______ (paint) the house when it started to rain.” a. painted b. was painting c. will paint
Correct answer: b. was painting Explanation: The past continuous tense is used to describe an ongoing action in the past (painting the house) that was interrupted by another action (rain starting).
“I ______ (practice) the piano when the phone rang.” a. practiced b. was practicing c. will practice
Correct answer: b. was practicing Explanation: The past continuous tense is used to describe an ongoing action in the past (practicing the piano) that was interrupted by another action (the phone ringing).
“They ______ (discuss) their plans when the doorbell rang.” a. discussed b. were discussing c. will discuss
Correct answer: b. were discussing Explanation: The past continuous tense is used to describe an ongoing action in the past (discussing their plans) that was interrupted by another action (the doorbell ringing).
“The cat ______ (sleep) on the couch when the dog barked.” a. slept b. was sleeping c. will sleep
Correct answer: b. was sleeping Explanation: The past continuous tense is used to describe an ongoing action in the past (the cat sleeping) that was interrupted by another action (the dog barking).
“The teacher ______ (explain) the topic when the principal entered the classroom.” a. explained b. was explaining c. will explain
Correct answer: b. was explaining Explanation: The past continuous tense is used to describe an ongoing action in the past (the teacher explaining the topic) that was interrupted by another action (the principal entering the classroom).
Comprehensive guide covering essential IELTS preparation strategies and techniques to help you achieve your target band score.
Originally published March 2023. Last reviewed 3 July 2026.
Reported speech, also known as indirect speech, is a way to convey what someone said without using their exact words. It is used in conversation, journalism, fiction, and more. In English, we use reported speech to talk about what someone said or thought in the past. In this comprehensive guide, we will cover the basics of reported speech, including tense changes, using reporting verbs, converting direct speech to reported speech, and handling time expressions. We will also discuss common mistakes students make while using reported speech in English.
What is Reported Speech?
Reported speech is a way of reporting what someone has said. It is also known as indirect speech because the speaker does not use the exact words of the original speaker.
Types of Reported Speech
Reported speech can be divided into four types:
a. Reported statements: These are sentences that report what someone said. For example: Direct speech: “I am going to the store.” Reported speech: She said she was going to the store.
b. Reported questions: These are sentences that report what someone asked. For example: Direct speech: “Are you going to the store?” Reported speech: She asked if I was going to the store.
c. Reported requests: These are sentences that report what someone asked for. For example: Direct speech: “Can you pass me the salt?” Reported speech: She asked if I could pass her the salt.
d. Reported orders: These are sentences that report what someone ordered. For example: Direct speech: “Bring me some water.” Reported speech: She ordered me to bring her some water.
Tense Changes in Reported Speech
In reported speech, we often change the tense of the verb from the original sentence. The following chart shows how tense changes work in reported speech:
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Present simple
Past simple
Present continuous
Past continuous
Present perfect
Past perfect
Past simple
Past perfect
Past continuous
Past perfect continuous
Past perfect
Past perfect
Future
Conditional
Here are some examples:
Direct speech: “I am going to the store.” Reported speech: She said she was going to the store. (Present simple becomes past simple)
Direct speech: “I am studying English.” Reported speech: He said he was studying English. (Present continuous becomes past continuous)
Direct speech: “I have finished my homework.” Reported speech: She said she had finished her homework. (Present perfect becomes past perfect)
Direct speech: “He went to the store.” Reported speech: She said he had gone to the store. (Past simple becomes past perfect)
Direct speech: “I was watching TV.” Reported speech: She said she had been watching TV. (Past continuous becomes past perfect continuous)
Direct speech: “They had already left.” Reported speech: He said they had already left. (Past perfect remains past perfect)
Direct speech: “I will come tomorrow.” Reported speech: She said she would come the next day. (Future becomes conditional)
Reporting Verbs
In reported speech, we use reporting verbs such as said, told, asked, and ordered to introduce the reported speech. The choice of reporting verb depends on the type of speech being reported and the relationship between the original speaker and the reporter.
Here are some examples:
Direct speech: “I love chocolate.” Reported speech: She said she loved chocolate.
Direct speech: “What time is it?” Reported speech: He asked what time it was.
Direct speech: “Please close the door.” Reported speech: She told me to close the door.
Direct speech: “Don’t touch that!” Reported speech: He ordered me not to touch that.
Converting Direct Speech to Reported Speech
To convert direct speech to reported speech, follow these steps:
a. Identify the reporting verb: Identify the verb that introduces the reported speech. This could be said, told, asked, ordered, and so on. b. Identify the subject and verb: Identify the subject and verb of the reported speech. c. Change the tense: Change the tense of the verb in the reported speech according to the rules we discussed earlier. d. Change pronouns and adverbs: Change any pronouns or adverbs in the reported speech to reflect the new subject or time frame. e. Use appropriate punctuation: Use a comma before the reported speech and a full stop at the end of the reported speech.
Here are some examples:
Direct speech: “I love you,” he said. Reported speech: He said he loved me.
Direct speech: “What are you doing?” she asked. Reported speech: She asked what I was doing.
Direct speech: “Don’t forget to bring the book,” he reminded her. Reported speech: He reminded her not to forget to bring the book.
Direct speech: “I will call you later,” she promised. Reported speech: She promised she would call me later.
Time Expressions
When using reported speech, it is important to pay attention to time expressions, such as yesterday, last week, or tomorrow. These expressions indicate when the original speech was made and may need to be adjusted in the reported speech.
When the reported speech refers to something that is still true, we do not change the time expressions. For example: Direct speech: “I live in New York.” Reported speech: She said she lives in New York.
When the reported speech refers to something that is no longer true, we need to adjust the time expressions. For example: Direct speech: “I saw him yesterday.” Reported speech: She said she had seen him the day before.
When the reported speech refers to something that will happen in the future, we also need to adjust the time expressions. For example: Direct speech: “I will call you tomorrow.” Reported speech: She said she would call me the next day.
Common Mistakes
Here are some examples to illustrate common mistakes in using reported speech:
a. Forgetting to change the tense of the verb in the reported speech: Direct speech: “I am going to the party,” she said. Incorrect reported speech: She said she is going to the party. Correct reported speech: She said she was going to the party.
In this example, the student forgot to change the tense of the verb “am” to “was” in the reported speech. This mistake can lead to confusion about the timing of the events being reported.
b. Using the wrong reporting verb: Direct speech: “Can you help me?” he asked. Incorrect reported speech: He said he can help me. Correct reported speech: He asked if he could help me.
In this example, the student used the reporting verb “said” instead of “asked.” This mistake can change the meaning of the reported speech and make it unclear whether the speaker was making a statement or asking a question.
c. Forgetting to change pronouns or adverbs in the reported speech: Direct speech: “I will see you later,” she said to him. Incorrect reported speech: She said she would see me later. Correct reported speech: She said she would see him later.
In this example, the student forgot to change the pronoun “me” to “him” to reflect the new subject of the reported speech. This mistake can lead to confusion about who said what and to whom.
d. Misusing time expressions: Direct speech: “I saw him yesterday,” she said. Incorrect reported speech: She said she saw him today. Correct reported speech: She said she had seen him the day before.
In this example, the student misused the time expression “today” instead of “the day before,” which accurately reflects the past tense of “yesterday.” This mistake can create confusion about the timing of the events being reported.
Practice Questions:
1. Direct speech: “I am happy,” she said. Reported speech:
2. Direct speech: “Can you help me with my homework?” he asked. Reported speech:
3. Direct speech: “I have never been to Paris before,” she said. Reported speech:
4. Direct speech: “Don’t forget to buy bread,” he reminded her. Reported speech:
5. Direct speech: “I am going to the beach tomorrow,” she said. Reported speech:
6. Direct speech: “What are you doing?” he asked. Reported speech:
7. Direct speech: “I will study harder next time,” she promised. Reported speech:
8. Direct speech: “I am sorry I cannot come,” he said. Reported speech:
9. Direct speech: “I am cooking dinner,” she said. Reported speech:
10. Direct speech: “I will visit my parents next week,” he said. Reported speech:
11. Direct speech: “I love you,” she said. Reported speech:
12. Direct speech: “Don’t touch that!” he shouted. Reported speech:
13. Direct speech: “Have you finished the report?” she asked. Reported speech:
14. Direct speech: “I had a great time,” he said. Reported speech:
15. Direct speech: “I will be there at 8 o’clock,” she said. Reported speech:
16. Direct speech: “I can’t go to the party,” he said. Reported speech:
17. Direct speech: “I was watching TV,” she said. Reported speech:
18. Direct speech: “Will you help me with this?” he asked. Reported speech:
19. Direct speech: “I don’t like pizza,” she said. Reported speech:
20. Direct speech: “I have been working all day,” he said. Reported speech:
21. Direct speech: “Please come to my party,” she said. Reported speech:
22. Direct speech: “I am reading a book,” he said. Reported speech:
23. Direct speech: “I have never seen that before,” she said. Reported speech:
24. Direct speech: “I will call you later,” he said. Reported speech:
25. Direct speech: “I had a dream last night,” she said. Reported speech:
Practice Answers:
She said she was happy.
He asked if I could help him with his homework.
She said she had never been to Paris before.
He reminded her not to forget to buy bread.
She said she was going to the beach the next day.
He asked what I was doing.
She promised she would study harder next time.
He said he was sorry he could not come.
She said she was cooking dinner.
He said he would visit his parents the following week.
Comprehensive guide covering essential IELTS preparation strategies and techniques to help you achieve your target band score.
Originally published March 2023. Last reviewed 3 July 2026.
Understanding Irregular Verbs in English
Irregular verbs in English can be challenging, as they don’t follow standard conjugation rules. However, with practice and a deeper understanding of their unique characteristics, you can significantly improve your grammar skills. In this article, we will cover the basics of irregular verbs, provide examples, and offer some practice questions to help you master this aspect of the English language.
What are Irregular Verbs?
Irregular verbs are those that don’t follow the typical conjugation rules. In most cases, the simple past (V2) and past participle (V3) forms are not created by adding ‘d’, ‘ed’, or ‘ied’ to the base form. For example, the irregular verb “go” has the forms “go-went-gone”. Some irregular verbs have the same past simple (V2) and past participle (V3) forms, such as “bet-bet-bet”.
List of Common Irregular Verbs
Below is a list of common irregular verbs in English, along with their past simple (V2) and past participle (V3) forms.
Infinitive
Past Simple
Past Participle
Arise
Arose
Arisen
Babysit
Babysat
Babysat
Be
was/were
Been
Beat
Beat
Beaten
Bend
Bent
Bent
Begin
Began
Begun
Bet
Bet
Bet
Bind
Bound
Bound
Bite
Bit
Bitten
Bleed
Bled
Bled
Blow
Blew
Blown
Break
Broke
Broken
Breed
Bred
Bred
Bring
Brought
Brought
Build
Built
Built
Catch
Caught
Caught
Choose
Chose
Chosen
Come
Came
Come
Cost
Cost
Cost
Cut
Cut
Cut
Deal
Dealt
Dealt
Dig
Dug
Dug
Do
Did
Done
Draw
Drew
Drawn
Drink
Drank
Drunk
Drive
Drove
Driven
Eat
Ate
Eaten
Fall
Fell
Fallen
Feed
Fed
Fed
Feel
Felt
Felt
Find
Found
Found
Fly
Flew
Flown
Forbid
Forbade
Forbidden
Forget
Forgot
Forgotten
Forgive
Forgave
Forgiven
Freeze
Froze
Frozen
Get
Got
Gotten
Give
Gave
Given
Go
Went
Gone
Grow
Grew
Grown
Hang
Hung
Hung
Hang
Hanged
Hanged
Have
Had
Had
Hear
Heard
Heard
Hide
Hid
Hidden
Hit
Hit
Hit
Hold
Held
Held
Hurt
Hurt
Hurt
Keep
Kept
Kept
Know
Knew
Known
Lay
Laid
Lain
Lead
Led
Led
Leave
Left
Left
Lend
Lent
Lent
Let
Let
Let
Lie
Lay
Lain
Light
Lit
Lit
Lose
Lost
Lost
Make
Made
Made
Mean
Meant
Meant
Meet
Met
Met
Pay
Paid
Paid
Put
Put
Put
Quit
Quit
Quit
Read
Read
Read
Ride
Rode
Ridden
Ring
Rang
Rung
Rise
Rose
Risen
Run
Ran
Run
Say
Said
Said
See
Saw
Seen
Send
Sent
Sent
Set
Set
Set
Shake
Shook
Shaken
Shine
Shone
Shone
Irregular Verbs with Multiple Forms or Meanings
Some irregular verbs can have multiple forms or meanings, such as “hang” and “lie”. For example, when “hang” refers to attaching something to a high position, the forms are “hang-hung-hung”. However, when it means to kill someone by suspending them with a rope, the forms are “hang-hanged-hanged”.
Similarly, “lie” has two meanings. When it means to place your body in a horizontal position, the forms are “lie-lay-lain”. When it refers to not telling the truth, the forms are “lie-lied-lied”.
Some verbs can be both regular and irregular, depending on the context and preference. For instance, “burn” can be conjugated as “burned-burned” or “burnt-burnt”. The latter is more common in British English.
Conjugating Irregular Verbs in the Present Tense
Irregular verbs in the present tense follow simple rules. The only change occurs in the third person (He, She, or It). If the verb ends in ‘ss’, ‘x’, ‘ch’, ‘sh’, or ‘o’, we add ‘es’ in the third person, as in “kiss-kisses” or “watch-watches”. If the verb ends in a consonant + ‘y’, we remove ‘y’ and add ‘ies’ in the third person, such as “carry-carries” or “study-studies”.
Example Sentences with Irregular Verbs
A mechanic fixes cars.
She watches dramas every night.
He kisses his daughter before he goes to work.
She studies every night.
The baby cries all the time.
He denies all the responsibilities.
Practice Questions and Answers
Q1: What is the past participle form of the verb “write”? A1: Written
Q2: Choose the correct form of the verb “lie” in this sentence: “She ___ on the bed.” A2: Lay
Q3: What is the simple past form of the verb “swim”? A3: Swam
Q4: How do you conjugate the verb “study” in the third person singular (he, she, it)? A4: Studies
Q5: What is the correct past participle form for “hang when it means “to attach something in a high position”? A5: Hung
Comprehensive guide covering essential IELTS preparation strategies and techniques to help you achieve your target band score.
Originally published March 2023. Last reviewed 3 July 2026.
Modal verbs are a unique and essential aspect of the English language. They help express various ideas such as probability, ability, obligation, permission, and habits. In this article, we will delve into the different modal verbs, and their usage, and provide practice questions to test your understanding.
Modal Verbs:
The list of modal verbs in English includes:
can
could
may
might
will
would
must
shall
should
ought to
These verbs differ from normal verbs in three ways:
They don’t use an ‘s’ for the third person singular.
They make questions by inversion (e.g., ‘she can go’ becomes ‘can she go?’).
They are followed directly by the infinitive of another verb (without ‘to’).
Context and Usage:
Modal verbs have various applications in English, such as expressing probability, ability, obligation, permission, and habits.
Probability:
Modal verbs can indicate the likelihood of an event occurring.
Examples include:
It’s snowing, so it must be very cold outside.
I don’t know where John is. He could have missed the train.
This bill can’t be right. £200 for two cups of coffee!
Ability:
We use ‘can’ and ‘could’ to describe skills or abilities.
Examples include:
She can speak six languages.
My grandfather could play golf very well.
I can’t drive.
Obligation and Advice:
Modal verbs like ‘must’ or ‘should’ can express necessity or give advice.
Examples include:
Children must do their homework.
We have to wear a uniform at work.
You should stop smoking.
Permission:
We use ‘can’, ‘could’, and ‘may’ to ask for and grant permission or to express prohibition. Examples include:
Could I leave early today, please?
You may not use the car tonight.
Can we swim in the lake?
Habits:
‘Will’ and ‘would’ can describe habits or customary actions.
Examples include:
When I lived in Italy, we would often eat in the restaurant next to my flat.
John will always be late!
Past Modals:
Past modals such as ‘could have + past participle’, ‘should have + past participle’, and ‘would have + past participle’ can be confusing.
For example:
She could have studied harder.
We should have left earlier.
I would have called you if I had known.
Practice Questions:
You ________ speak louder; I can’t hear you.
He ________ be tired after such a long flight.
________ you help me with this math problem?
She ________ be the new manager; she just started working here.
If I had more time, I ________ learn how to play the guitar.
You ________ not park here; it’s a no-parking zone.
They ________ have left early to avoid traffic.
________ I have another piece of cake, please?
When I was a child, I ________ climb trees easily.
You ________ visit the doctor if you feel unwell.
We ________ meet at the cafe at 5 PM.
________ you tell me the time, please?
She ________ have taken a different route to avoid the traffic jam.
If I knew her address, I ________ send her an invitation.
You ________ not touch the artwork in the museum.
________ we go to the movies tonight?
She ________ play the violin when she was in high school.
You ________ submit your assignment by the deadline.
He ________ be at the gym right now.
________ I have a glass of water, please?
When we were kids, we ________ ride our bikes to school every day.
You ________ take an umbrella with you; it looks like it might rain.
I ________ believe he’s getting married next month.
________ you open the window, please?
If I had known about the sale, I ________ have bought a new pair of shoes.
Comprehensive guide covering essential IELTS preparation strategies and techniques to help you achieve your target band score.
Originally published March 2023. Last reviewed 3 July 2026.
To effectively communicate in English, it’s essential to understand clauses and their various types. In this article, we will delve into the different types of clauses, offering unique examples and explanations to help you grasp their usage in English grammar.
What is a Clause?
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. Complete sentences are composed of at least one clause, although they may include multiple clauses. For instance:
Lisa won the race. (One sentence, one clause)
Lisa won the race, and she received a trophy. (One sentence, two clauses)
Types of Clauses
Four primary types of clauses exist in English grammar:
Independent Clauses (Main Clause)
Dependent Clauses (Subordinate Clause)
Relative Clauses (Adjective Clause)
Noun Clauses
1. Independent Clauses (Main Clause)
An independent clause is a complete sentence with a subject and verb, expressing a complete thought. The structure of an independent clause is as follows: Subject + Verb = Complete Thought. For example:
Tom reads. (This sentence is complete, containing a subject and predicate.)
Independent clauses can be connected by coordinating conjunctions to form compound or complex sentences.
Coordinating Conjunctions:
and
but
for
nor
or
yet
2. Dependent Clauses (Subordinate Clause)
A dependent clause is part of a sentence that contains a subject and verb, but does not convey a complete meaning. While it may make sense on its own, a dependent clause requires the rest of the sentence for context and meaning. Dependent clauses are often connected to independent clauses to form complex sentences, typically starting with a subordinating conjunction.
Subordinating Conjunctions:
after
although
as
because
before
even if
even though
if
once
provided that
rather than
so that
since
though
than
that
until
unless
whenever
when
whereas
where
whether
while
Dependent Clause Structure:
Subordinate Conjunction + Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought
Example:
As soon as it starts raining, I’ll open my umbrella.
3. Relative Clauses (Adjective Clause)
Relative clauses begin with relative pronouns, such as who, which, or whose. These clauses help differentiate between human and non-human antecedents.
Relative Pronouns:
Who(m): used when the antecedent is a person
That: used for either a person or thing
Which: used for anything except a person
Relative clauses can be restrictive (defining) or non-restrictive (non-defining). Restrictive clauses help identify the noun, while non-restrictive clauses provide additional information without specifying the noun.
Examples:
Restrictive: The author who wrote the mystery novel won an award.
Non-Restrictive: The author, who wrote the mystery novel, won an award.
4. Noun Clauses
Noun clauses are dependent clauses that function as nouns. They can act as subjects, direct or indirect objects, or predicate nominatives.
Examples:
Can you tell me what
time the movie starts? (direct object)
I will give whoever brings me coffee a big tip. (indirect object)
Whatever you decide is fine with me. (subject)
The winner is whoever finishes the race first. (predicate nominative)
Noun clauses often begin with pronouns or other words that have a grammatical function in the sentence.
Comprehensive guide covering essential IELTS preparation strategies and techniques to help you achieve your target band score.
Originally published March 2023. Last reviewed 3 July 2026.
Prepositions are essential components of the English language, helping to create more meaningful and precise sentences. They can be quite challenging for learners to grasp, as their usage varies across different contexts. This article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of prepositions, with explanations, examples, and practice questions to help you master their usage.
Prepositions of Time:
Prepositions are often used with time expressions to provide clarity about when an event occurred or will occur. Common prepositions of time include “on,” “in,” and “at.”
Examples:
We’ll meet on Friday.
I was born in 1995.
The party starts at 7 pm.
Practice Question: Fill in the blank with the appropriate preposition.
The concert is scheduled ________ 8 pm.
Prepositions of Place:
These prepositions are used to describe the location of an object or person. Common prepositions of place include “on,” “in,” and “at.”
Examples:
The book is on the shelf.
The cat is hiding in the box.
She is waiting at the bus stop.
Practice Question: Fill in the blank with the appropriate preposition.
The flowers are ________ the vase.
Prepositions after Adjectives:
Some adjectives are followed by specific prepositions to form a particular meaning.
Examples:
He is interested in history.
The cake is delicious with chocolate frosting.
She is proud of her achievements.
Practice Question: Fill in the blank with the appropriate preposition.
The students are excited ________ the upcoming field trip.
Prepositions after Verbs:
Certain verbs require specific prepositions to convey the intended meaning.
Examples:
They are talking about their plans.
I apologized for my mistake.
We should prepare for the exam.
Practice Question: Fill in the blank with the appropriate preposition.
He is looking ________ his lost keys.
Prepositions after Nouns:
Some nouns are followed by specific prepositions to create a more precise meaning.
Examples:
She has a passion for music.
They made a decision about the proposal.
There was a disagreement between the two parties.
Practice Question: Fill in the blank with the appropriate preposition.
The company made an investment ________ new technology.
Prepositions in Phrases:
Prepositions are also found in idiomatic expressions and fixed phrases.
Examples:
The train arrived in the nick of time.
He stood by her side through thick and thin.
She completed the task against all odds.
Practice Question: Fill in the blank with the appropriate preposition.
They resolved the issue ________ the end.
Understanding and mastering the use of prepositions in English is crucial for effective communication. By familiarizing yourself with their various uses and practicing with exercises, you will develop a strong foundation and improve your overall language skills.
Comprehensive guide covering essential IELTS preparation strategies and techniques to help you achieve your target band score.
Originally published March 2023. Last reviewed 3 July 2026.
A relative clause is a type of subordinate clause that provides additional information about a noun or pronoun in a sentence. This article will cover the basics of relative clauses, including defining and non-defining relative clauses, relative pronouns, and the various types of relative clauses you might encounter in English. It will also provide practice exercises and tips for improving your use of relative clauses in both written and spoken English.
Defining and Non-defining Relative Clauses
Defining relative clauses provide essential information to identify the noun or pronoun being described. Example: “I like the woman who lives next door.”
Non-defining relative clauses offer extra information that is not necessary for understanding the main point of the sentence. Example: “I live in London, which has some fantastic parks.”
Using Relative Pronouns in Defining and Non-defining Clauses
Subject Pronouns: “who” for people, “which” for things, and “that” for both people and things. Example: “The people who live on the island are very friendly.”
Object Pronouns: In defining relative clauses, the pronoun can be dropped. Example: “She loves the chocolate (which/that) I bought.” In non-defining relative clauses, use “who” for people and “which” for things, and the pronoun cannot be dropped. Example: “My boss, who is very nice, lives in Manchester.”
Prepositions in Relative Clauses
Prepositions can be placed at the end of the clause. Example: “The music (which/that) Julie listens to is good.”
Using ‘Whose,’ ‘Where,’ ‘When,’ and ‘Why’
“Whose” is used to replace possessive pronouns, “where,” “when,” and “why” can be used instead of relative pronouns and prepositions in some cases. Example: “I live in the city where I study.”
Relative Clauses with Prepositions and ‘Whom’
A preposition can be placed at the beginning of the clause for a more formal sentence structure. Example: “The city in which I study is very beautiful.” ‘Whom’ is the object form of ‘who’ and can be used in formal English when the relative pronoun refers to a person and functions as the object of the clause. Example: “The woman whom I admire greatly is a successful entrepreneur.”
Punctuating Non-defining Relative Clauses and Embedded Relative Clauses
Non-defining relative clauses are set off by commas. Example: “My friend, who is a professional dancer, just won a prestigious award.” A relative clause can also be embedded within another relative clause. Example: “The book, which I borrowed from the library, contains an article about the artist whose paintings we saw at the exhibition.”
Relative Clause Review and Practice Exercises
To solidify your understanding of relative clauses, try the following exercises:
Exercise: Relative Pronoun as the Subject
Exercise: Relative Pronoun as the Object
Exercise: Defining Relative Clauses (Subject and Object)
Exercise: Another Defining Relative Clauses Practice (Subject and Object)
Reduced Relative Clauses and Other Language Features
Reduced relative clauses can be created by omitting the relative pronoun and changing the verb form. Example: “The books (that are) written by Jane Austen are classics.” Other language features to consider when using relative clauses include appositives, relative clauses in other languages, and the use of relative adverbs, such as “where,” “when,” and “why.”
Improving Your Use of Relative Clauses
To further enhance your understanding and use of relative clauses, consider the following tips:
Read and analyze well-written texts: Reading books, articles, and essays can help you observe how relative clauses are used in various contexts and writing styles.
Practice writing your own sentences: Create sentences with different types of relative clauses, using a variety of relative pronouns and adverbs. This will help you become more comfortable with the different structures and patterns.
Review and edit your work: After writing, review your sentences to ensure that you have used relative clauses correctly and effectively. Look for errors in punctuation, parallelism, and pronoun reference.
Seek feedback from others: Share your writing with a friend, teacher, or language partner, and ask for feedback on your use of relative clauses. This can help you identify areas for improvement and gain insights into how your writing is perceived by others.
Practice speaking with relative clauses: Engage in conversations that require you to provide additional information about people, places, or things. This will help you become more comfortable using relative clauses in spoken English.
By incorporating these tips into your language learning journey, you will continue to strengthen your understanding and use of relative clauses in both written and spoken English. This will ultimately enhance your overall communication skills and enable you to express yourself more clearly and effectively. Remember to consider the various types of relative clauses, the role of relative pronouns, and the importance of punctuation and parallelism when constructing sentences with relative clauses.
