The name nuthatch is derived from nut hacker, reflecting the bird’s method of opening up nuts by jamming them into a crevice then hammering at them. Old country names include mud dabbler and mud stopper, both of which note the bird’s curious habit of plastering mud around the entrance hole to its nest.
B
Unlike the treecreeper, which only moves up the trunk of a tree, nuthatches will move both up and down. Once a bird restricted largely to south-eastern England, the 20th century witnessed a spread to the north, with breeding in Scotland first confirmed in 1989. Studies have shown that large gardens with oak trees provide the optimum habitat for this species. One of the reasons for the expansion seems to be the nuthatch’s increasing use of bird feeders and bird tables.
C
As anyone who has nuthatches visiting their feeders will know, they are bold and aggressive, able to stand their ground when larger birds such as starlings attempt to intimidate them. They will take food from the bird table to store elsewhere: this can lead to sunflowers sprouting in expected places. Pairs are strongly territorial throughout the year. The fact that food is stored within the territory strengthens the need to defend it.
D
Though they will readily adopt nest boxes, they cannot resist plastering mud around the entrance hole, even if the latter is already the right size. The most favoured natural site for a nuthatch is the old nest hole of a great spotted woodpecker. Nuthatches are one of the nosiest woodland birds in the early spring but are relatively silent when breeding.
E
There are 24 different species of nuthatches in the world: our bird has much the widest distribution, as it breeds continually from Portugal to Korea and Japan. The nuthatch has never been recorded in Ireland. Most nuthatches are highly sedentary, seldom moving far from where they hatched. The average distance travelled by a ringed adult nuthatch is less than a kilometre.
F
No British-ringed individuals have ever been recovered abroad, while similarly no birds ringed on the Continent have been found here. Individuals breeding in Sweden and Norway have distinctive white underparts, unlike the peachy buff of our birds. Remarkably, a red-breasted nuthatch from North America spent nearly seven months at Holkham in Norfolk from October 1989 to May 1990.
G
Perhaps surprisingly, the nuthatch has received little in the way of study in Britain, and most of our knowledge comes from work carried out in Sweden and Belgium. Numbers are known to fluctuate quite widely from year to year, probably reflecting the availability of seed during the winter.
Questions 35 – 37
Complete the summary below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 35-37 on your answer sheet.
As people who regularly see nuthatches will know, they are very confident and can be quite (35)……………………………., so that they are able to defend themselves when larger birds come and try to scare them. They will take food from bird tables and feeders to store, this can lead to many flowers including (36)………………………………….. growing in many places. They often travel two together, and are tied to their dwelling place, because their food is housed here, they (37)………………………… their territory.
Questions 38-40
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.
Nuthatch Birds
The name nuthatch comes from nut hacker, which reflects the bird’s method of opening up nuts by jamming them into a crevice then (38)………………………….. at them.
Old country names include mud dabbler and mud stopper, both of which note the bird’s curious habit of plastering mud around the entrance hole to its nest.
Unlike the (39)……………………………., which only moves up the trunk of a tree, nuthatches will move both up and down.
Studies have shown that large gardens with oak trees provide the best (40)…………………………. for this species.
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Essential strategies and practice techniques for this IELTS Reading question type. Learn how to manage time and improve accuracy.
Originally published May 2018. Last reviewed 3 July 2026.
Practice the reading test section below or purchase an easy to print out PDF, which includes all 3 test sections for Reading Test 4 here.
There is also an IELTS General Training Practice Test PDF download that includes all 4 practice tests.
With each test, you get the following >
PDF for each section of the reading test.
PDF explaining the reading test band scores.
PDF example of a reading test answer sheet.
READING SECTION 3 – QUESTIONS 30-41
Recycling Glass
A – Recycling Glass
Most glass bottles and jars produced in the United States now contain at least 27% recycled glass – which also saves on energy to produce glass made from new materials. Some glass cannot be made into other products, or doing so is not economically feasible. If your local recycler doesn’t participate in glass recycling, it’s due to the market for that glass being very small or non-existent. However, if glass recycling is available, it’s important to keep in mind as you recycle that even small amounts of some materials mixed in can contaminate entire loads. Find out more about the types of glass and how they are recycled below.
B – Clear Glass
About 61% of glass containers produced in this country are clear. Clear glass is made of a combination of silica (sand), soda ash, and limestone. Marketing professionals often prefer clear glass containers because they make the product inside visible. However, the clear glass may cause some products to degrade because of light exposure. That’s why about 39% of the glass produced is coloured. Clear glass is sometimes used for beverages. More often, it’s used to package solids or thick liquids, such as pasta sauce, that may not be sensitive to light.
C – Brown Glass
About 31% of glass containers produced in this country are brown in colour. To produce brown glass, the manufacturer adds nickel, sulfur and carbon to molten glass. The “brown” in the glass cannot be removed. Thus, brown bottles can be used only to make other brown bottles. Brown glass protects the container’s contents from direct sunlight, thus preserving freshness and flavour. It is the most common colour used for beer bottles.
D – Green Glass
About 7% of glass containers produced in this country are green in colour. To produce green glass, the manufacturer adds iron, chromium or copper to molten glass. Green glass comes in a variety of shades. The “green” cannot be removed. Thus, green bottles can be used only to make other green bottles. Green glass helps keep sunlight and temperature from affecting the contents, which explains why it is often used in the manufacture of wine bottles.
E – More About Recycling Glass
The glass is taken to a manufacturing or recycling plant where it is broken up into smaller pieces known as “cullet.” The cullet is crushed, sorted, cleaned, and prepared to be mixed with other raw materials. When the glass is produced from virgin materials, it requires high temperatures to melt and combine all the ingredients. Since cullet melts at a lower temperature, the more of it you add to a batch of raw materials, the less energy needed to melt it.
Ceramics such as coffee cups and plates present a problem in the glass-making process because they can weaken the glass. Even a small amount of ceramics can contaminate a whole batch of glass and cost the glassmaker millions of dollars.
F – What Not To Recycle
Not all glass can be recycled. The following items should not be placed in your recycling bin:
Any glass contaminated with stones, dirt, and food waste
Ceramics, such as dishware, ovenware, and decorative items.
Heat-resistant glass, such as Pyrex.
Mixed colours of broken glass.
Mirror or window glass.
Metal or plastic caps and lids.
Crystal.
Light bulbs: Find out how to recycle here.
Cathode-ray tubes (CRTs) found in some televisions and computer monitors. Find out how to recycle here.
Questions 30-36
Complete the summary below of the first two paragraphs of the Reading Passage.
Choose ONE OR TWO WORDS from the Reading Passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 30-36 on your answer sheet.
not all (30)………………… can be used again and made into other objects. This must be, separated and cleaned before recycling and if any of the different types of glass are mixed, they can (31) …………………….. large amounts of the product. Transparent glass is often used by many (32)……………………… as they are pleasing to look at and easy to use when trying to sell products to customers. This type of glass is made from three different materials combined, including; (33)……………., (34)………………….. and (35)…………………….. Using see-through containers for some items may cause them to deteriorate, so more often (36) ……………………… glass is used.
Questions 37-41
Look at paragraphs C, D, E and F and, using the information in the passage, complete the flow chart below.
Write your answers in boxes 37-41 on your answer sheet. Use ONE OR TWO WORDS for each answer.
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Essential strategies and practice techniques for this IELTS Reading question type. Learn how to manage time and improve accuracy.
Originally published May 2018. Last reviewed 3 July 2026.
Practice the reading test section below or purchase an easy to print out PDF, which includes all 3 test sections for Reading Test 4 here.
There is also an IELTS General Training Practice Test PDF download that includes all 4 practice tests.
With each test, you get the following >
PDF for each section of the reading test.
PDF explaining the reading test band scores.
PDF example of a reading test answer sheet.
READING SECTION 3 – QUESTIONS 28-40
The Penny Black
It might not have looked very impressive, but the Penny Black, now 170 years old, was the first stamp to be created and it launched the modem postal system in Britain.
Before 1840 and the arrival of the Penny Black, you had to be rich and patient to use the Royal Mail. Delivery was charged according to the miles travelled and the number of sheets of paper used; a 2-page letter sent from Edinburgh to London, for example, would have cost 2 shillings, or more than £7 in today’s money. And when the top-hatted letter carrier came to deliver it, it was the recipient who had to pay for the postage. Letter writers employed various ruses to reduce the cost, doing everything possible to cram more words onto a page. Nobody bothered with heavy envelopes; instead, letters would be folded and sealed with wax. You then had to find a post office – there were no pillar boxes – and hope your addressee didn’t live in one of the several rural areas which were not served by the system. If you were lucky, your letter would arrive (it could take days) without being read or censored.
The state of mail had been causing concern throughout the 1830s, but it was Rowland Hill, an inventor, teacher and social reformer from Kidderminster, who proposed a workable plan for change. Worried that a dysfunctional, costly service would stifle communication just as Britain was in the swing of its second industrial revolution, he believed reform would ease the distribution of ideas and stimulate trade and business, delivering the same promise as the new railways.
Hill’s proposal for the penny post, which meant any letter weighing less than half an ounce (14 grams) could be sent anywhere in Britain for about 30p in today’s money, was so radical that the Postmaster General, Lord Lichfield, said, ‘Of all the wild and visionary schemes which I ever heard of, it is the most extravagant.’ Lord Lichfield spoke for an establishment not convinced of the need for poor people to post anything. But merchants and reformers backed Hill. Soon the government told him to make his scheme work. And that meant inventing a new type of currency.
Hill quickly settled on ‘a bit of paper covered at the back with a glutinous wash which the user might, by applying a little moisture, attach to the back of a letter’. Stamps would be printed in sheets of 240 that could be cut using scissors or a knife. Perforations would not arrive until 1854. The idea stuck, and in August 1839 the Treasury launched a design competition open to ‘all artists, men of science and the public in general’. The new stamp would need to be resistant to forgery, and so it was a submission by one Mr Cheverton that Hill used as the basis for one of the most striking designs in history. Cheverton, who worked as a sculptor and an engineer, determined that a portrait of Queen Victoria, engraved for a commemorative coin when she was a 15-year-old princess, was detailed enough to make copying difficult, and recognisable enough to make fakes easy to spot. The words ‘Postage’ and ‘One Penny’ was added alongside flourishes and ornamental stars. Nobody thought to add the word ‘Britain’, as it was assumed that the stamps would solely be put to domestic use.
With the introduction of the new postal system, the Penny Black was an instant hit, and printers struggled to meet demand. By the end of 1840, more than 160 million letters had been sent – more than double the previous year. It created more work for the post office, whose reform continued with the introduction of red letter boxes, new branches and more frequent deliveries, even to the remotest address, but its lasting impact on society was more remarkable.
Hill and his supporters rightly predicted that cheaper post would improve the ‘diffusion of knowledge’. Suddenly, someone in Scotland could be reached by someone in London within a day or two. And as literacy improved, sections of society that had been disenfranchised found a voice.
Tristram Hunt, a historian, values the ‘flourishing of correspondence’ that followed the arrival of stamps. ‘While I was writing my biography of Friedrich Engels I could read the letters he and Marx sent between Manchester and London,’ he says. ‘They wrote to each other three times a day, pinging ideas back and forth so that you can almost follow a real-time correspondence.’
The penny post also changed the nature of the letter. Weight-saving tricks such as cross-writing began to die out, while the arrival of envelopes built confidence among correspondents that mail would not be stolen or read. And so people wrote more private things – politically or commercially sensitive information or love letters. ‘In the early days of the penny post, there was still concern about theft,’ Hunt says. ‘Engels would still send Marx money by ripping up five-pound notes and sending the pieces in different letters.’ But the probity of the postal system became a great thing and it came to be expected that your mail would not be tampered with.
For all its brilliance, the Penny Black was technically a failure. At first, post offices used red ink to cancel stamps so that they could not be used again. But the ink could be removed. When in 1842, it was determined that black ink would be more robust, the colour of the Penny Black became a sort of browny red, but Hill’s brainchild had made its mark.
Questions 28-30
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 28-30 on your answer sheet.
28. One of the characteristics of the postal service before the 1840s was that
A. postmen were employed by various organisations.
B. letters were restricted to a certain length.
C. distance affected the price of postage.
D. the price of delivery kept going up.
29. Letter writers in the 1830s
A. was not responsible for the cost of delivery.
B. tried to fit more than one letter into an envelope.
C. could only send letters to people living in cities.
D. knew all letters were automatically read by postal staff.
30. What does the text say about Hill in the 1830s?
A. He was the first person to express concern about the postal system.
B. He considered it would be more efficient for mail to be delivered by rail.
C. He felt that postal service reform was necessary for commercial development.
D. His plan received support from all the important figures of the day.
Questions 31-34
Look at the following statements (Questions 31-34) and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person, A, B , C or D.
Write the correct letter, A, B, C or D, in boxes 31-34 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
31. His inspiration came from a particular picture. 32. He claimed that the postal system would lead to the spread of information. 33. He organised the creation of the first stamp. 34. He expressed doubts about the plans to change the postal service.
List of People
A. Rowland Hill
B. Lord Lichfield
C. Cheverton
D. Tristram Hunt
Questions 35-40
Complete the notes below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 35-40 on your answer sheet.
The Penny Black
• The design came about as a result of a competition organised by the 35 ……………………
• Based on an engraving of Queen Victoria featured on a 36 …………………….
• Apart from the Queen’s face, the stamp had just three words and pictures of 37……………………. as decoration
• No mention of 38……………………. as the plan was for stamps to be for domestic use only
• The 39……………………., which was applied to indicate that the stamp had been used, proved to be ineffective
• In 1842, the 40……………………. of the stamp was changed.
If you need help to answer these questions with extra practice please read the posts below >>
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Henry, the second son of King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York, was born on 28 June 1491 at Greenwich Palace. After the death of his elder brother Arthur in 1502, Henry became heir to the English throne.
B
When Henry VII died in 1509, this popular eighteen-year-old Prince, known for his love of hunting and dancing, became King Henry VIII. Soon after he obtained the papal dispensation required to allow him to marry his brother’s widow, Catherine of Aragon. In the first years of his reign Henry VIII effectively relied on Thomas Wolsey to rule for him, and by 1515 Henry had elevated him to the highest role in government: Lord Chancellor. In 1521 Pope Leo X conferred the title of Defender of the Faith on Henry for his book ‘Assertio Septem Sacramentorum’, which affirmed the supremacy of the Pope in the face of the reforming ideals of the German theologian, Martin Luther.
C
Henry VIII’s early military campaigns began when he joined Pope Julius II’s Holy League against France in 1511. Wolsey proved himself to be an outstanding minister in his organisation of the first French campaign and while the Scots saw this war as an opportunity to invade England, they were defeated at Flodden in 1513. However, war with France ultimately proved expensive and unsuccessful. Henry VIII is known as the ‘father of the Royal Navy.’ When he became king there were five royal warships. By his death, he had built up a navy of around 50 ships. He refitted several vessels with the latest guns including the Mary Rose, which sank in 1545. Henry also built the first naval dock in Britain at Portsmouth and in 1546 he established the Navy Board. This set up the administrative machinery for the control of the fleet.
D
Henry was acutely aware of the importance of securing a male heir during his reign. He was worried that he had only one surviving child, Mary, to show for his marriage to Catherine, who was now in her 40s. So the king asked Cardinal Wolsey to appeal to Pope Clement VII for an annulment and it soon became clear he wanted to marry Anne Boleyn, who had been a lady-in-waiting to his first wife. But, unwilling to anger Catherine of Aragon’s nephew – the most powerful ruler in Europe, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V – the Pope refused. Thomas Wolsey’s ascendancy was cut short by this failure. In 1533, Henry VIII broke with the church and married the now pregnant Anne Boleyn in a secret ceremony. Henry was excommunicated by the Pope. The English Reformation had begun.
E
After Wolsey’s downfall, Thomas Cromwell became Henry’s chief minister and earned the confidence of the King by helping him to break with Rome and establish Henry VIII as head of the Church of England. This act also brought him much needed wealth through the dissolution of the well-funded monasteries. Over four years Cromwell ordered that 800 monasteries be disbanded and their lands and treasures were taken for the crown. The cultural and social impact was significant, as much of the land was sold to the gentry and churches and monasteries were gutted and destroyed. Henry’s personal religious beliefs remained Catholic, despite the growing number of people at court and in the nation who had adopted Protestantism.
F
In September 1533 Anne gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth (the future Queen Elizabeth I). Henry had grown tired of her, and after two further pregnancies ended in miscarriages, she was arrested in 1536 on trumped up charges of adultery and publicly beheaded at the Tower of London. Henry’s third marriage, this time to the lady-in-waiting, Jane Seymour, finally produced the son he so desperately desired with the birth of Edward in 1537. Jane Seymour died after childbirth and Henry ordered that she be granted a queen’s funeral. In an attempt to establish ties with the German Protestant alliance, Thomas Cromwell arranged a marriage between the king and German princess Anne of Cleves. The marriage was a disaster and Henry divorced Anne a few months later. Henry blamed Cromwell for this mismatch and soon afterwards had him executed for treason.
G
The final years of his reign witnessed Henry VIII’s physical decline and an increasing desire to appear all-powerful. Henry continued with fruitless and expensive campaigns against Scotland and France. In 1540, the ageing King married the teenage Catherine Howard. Their marriage was short-lived. It was alleged that she had a previous relationship with Henry’s courtier Francis Dereham and an affair with another courtier Thomas Culpeper. Catherine was executed for adultery and treason in 1542. Henry’s final marriage to Catherine Parr, who acted as a nurse, was more harmonious and she would go on to outlive him. Henry VIII died on 28 January 1547 and was succeeded by his son, Edward VI. He was buried next to Jane Seymour in St. George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle.
Questions 35 – 37
Complete the summary below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 35-37 on your answer sheet.
Who was Henry VIII?
Henry VIII was one of the most notable and memorable monarch’s that England has seen. Much talked about throughout history, Henry VIII ascended to the throne when his father died and he was the only 35 ……………………………… He married his brother’s widow Catherine of Aragon and took counsel from one of the more well-known figures in history 36 …………………………………………. Throughout his reign, Henry VIII was known for his many relationships, foremost with his second wife 37 ……………………………………………. This relationship was the driving force behind Henry’s break with Rome and the Catholic faith.
Questions 38-40
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.
The Wives of Henry VIII
Catherine of Aragon was the first wife of Henry VIII, originally married to his brother.
His second wife was Anne Boleyn, mother of 38 …………………………………. He grew tired of her and had her beheaded.
Moving on to Jane Seymour who gave Henry the son he so wanted, she died during childbirth.
Next was Anne of Cleaves, who was thought to have disappointed Henry with her appearance, however, she survived the marriage as it ended in 39 ………………………………………
After that, he married teenager Catherine Howard, who was much younger than him and was rumoured to have had many affairs.
Lastly he married Catherine Parr, who went on to 40 ………………………………… him.
If you need help to answer these questions with extra practice please read the posts below >>
We hope you found this post useful in helping you to study for the IELTS Test. If you have any questions please let us know in the comments below or on the Facebook page.
The best way to keep up to date with posts like this is to like us on Facebook, then follow us on Instagram and Pinterest.
If you need help preparing for the IELTS Test, join the IELTS Achieve Academy and see how we can assist you to achieve your desired band score. We offer an essay correction service, mock exams and online courses.
